Deng Xiaoping:The Architect of Modern China (Part 1)
Deng Xiaoping (1904-1997) was the central figure of China’s reform and opening-up, leading the economic reforms and modernization process after 1978. He proposed the “One Country, Two Systems” policy and adjusted the policy direction after the Tiananmen Square Incident. He is acclaimed as the architect of China’s modernization.
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Deng Xiaoping was born on August 22, 1904, in Paifang Village, Xiexing Township, Guang’an County, Sichuan Province. His ancestral home was in Jishui, Jiangxi. His political career experienced “three falls and three rises.” In 1933, he was criticized within the CPC for supporting Mao Zedong, but after the Zunyi Conference, he regained a key position. After the establishment of the People’s Republic of China, he became the Vice Premier of the Central People’s Government in 1952, Vice Premier of the State Council in 1954, and concurrently served as Secretary-General of the CPC Central Committee until 1956. After the 8th National Congress of the CPC, he became a member of the CPC Politburo Standing Committee and General Secretary of the Central Secretariat. During this period, he was involved in the Gao Gang and Rao Shushi incident and played an important role in the Anti-Rightist Campaign of 1957. During the Cultural Revolution, Deng was persecuted and exiled to Jiangxi in 1969. After Lin Biao’s death, he returned to politics in 1973 as Vice Premier of the State Council, assisting Premier Zhou Enlai in managing the State Council. However, due to leading the 1975 rectification, he fell out of favor with Mao Zedong and the Gang of Four and was again stripped of all positions following the Tiananmen Incident in 1976, retaining only his CPC membership. After Mao’s death, Deng returned to politics for a third time at the Third Plenary Session of the 10th CPC Central Committee in 1977, reinstated as Vice Chairman of the CPC Central Committee, Vice Premier of the State Council, Vice Chairman of the Central Military Commission, and Chief of the General Staff of the People’s Liberation Army, collectively known as “three vice positions and one chief.”
In December 1978, Deng was established as the core leader at the Third Plenary Session of the 11th CPC Central Committee, replacing then CPC Chairman and Premier Hua Guofeng as the de facto top leader of China. From the late 1970s to the early 1980s, Deng led efforts to rectify mistakes, initiated reform and opening-up, led the Sino-Vietnamese War, abolished the lifelong tenure of officials, promoted family planning and compulsory education, proposed the One Country, Two Systems policy, and opposed bourgeois liberalization. In 1982, Deng presided over the revision of the Constitution of the People’s Republic of China (the “82 Constitution”), the fourth and current constitution of China. In 1985, he led the reduction of the People’s Liberation Army by one million troops. In 1986, Deng launched the 863 Program for the development of high technology in China and showed interest in political reform but retreated from the subject following the Tiananmen Square Incident in 1989, resigning in November that year. In early 1992, Deng conducted the Southern Tour, reigniting China’s economic reform and opening-up, which saved the burgeoning capital market of mainland China.
Deng Xiaoping passed away on February 19, 1997, at the age of 92, and his ashes were scattered into the sea on March 2 of the same year. Throughout his life, Deng never held the positions of China’s head of state, head of government, or the highest office within the CPC, yet from December 1978 (Third Plenary Session of the 11th CPC Central Committee) until his resignation as Chairman of the CPC Central Military Commission (Fifth Plenary Session of the 13th CPC Central Committee) in November 1989, he was widely regarded as the de facto highest leader of mainland China and was acknowledged as such in the Constitution of the Communist Party of China. Deng’s key political ideas were encapsulated in “Deng Xiaoping Theory,” which became the guiding ideology of both the Party and the state, forming the first component of the theoretical system of socialism with Chinese characteristics. His reforms also established major cities such as Shenzhen. Deng was twice selected as “Person of the Year” by Time magazine in 1978 and 1985, but he remains controversial for his failure to fully address the Cultural Revolution and the Tiananmen Square Incident, the latter being seen by some as a blemish on his late years.
Biography
Early Life
Family Background
Deng’s relative, Deng Shimin, held an important court position, serving as the Chief Justice of the Dali Temple. The “Old Deng Family Courtyard” was located about 7 kilometers north of Guang’an County and was a three-wing courtyard facing west, made of wooden frame structures.
On August 22, 1904 (the 12th day of the seventh lunar month in the 30th year of Emperor Guangxu’s reign), Deng was born into a small landowning family in Yaopingli, Wangxi Township, Guang’an Prefecture, Sichuan Province (now Paifang Village, Xiexing Town, Guang’an District, Guang’an City), as the eldest son.
Childhood
In early 1909, shortly after the Lantern Festival, Deng was sent to a private school in his village to begin his studies. The school was known as “Hanlin Academy” and was built by Deng Shimin. At the age of six, Deng transferred to a larger private school in Xiexing Township. The private school teacher, Deng Shaoming, found the name “Xiansheng” somewhat disrespectful to Confucius and, on his own accord, changed it to “Xixian,” which was accepted by Deng Shaochang. Deng’s calligraphy assignments often received red circles of approval from his teacher, and his mother would reward him with boiled eggs. After studying at the private school for over a year, Deng Shaochang decided to send Deng to the local primary school in Xiexing, located about 2 kilometers from the Deng family home. The school was a modern institution founded by Hu Guangbai, a revolutionary who had studied in Japan, and Deng Shaochang. Deng was known for his filial piety, helping his mother with household chores and looking after his younger siblings. He would often recite poems for his siblings and neighbors. In 1915, Deng was admitted to the county-level higher primary school.
Deng graduated from higher primary school in 1918. In the summer of that year, he entered Guang’an County Middle School, located at the foot of Xiuping Mountain in the county town. In November 1918, Cai Yuanpei delivered his famous “Sacredness of Labor” speech at Tiananmen Square in Beijing, which quickly spread among young students across China. Subsequently, movements like the “Labor-Study Association” and “Work-Study Mutual Aid Corps” emerged, promoting the idea of combining work with study, bridging the gap between intellectual and manual labor, and seeking to transform China and the world. The labor-study movement had utopian and reformist tendencies, inspiring many young students to travel to France for work-study programs.
After the May Fourth Movement in 1919, Deng joined the rest of his schoolmates in boycotting Japanese goods. At the time, his thinking was limited to “saving the country through industry,” and he hoped to go to France to work while studying, acquiring skills to contribute to the country. After the school went on strike in June, followed by the summer vacation, Deng decided to return home and resume school in the fall. Not long after his return, Deng Shaochang received word from Chongqing that Deng should go there to take the entrance exam for a preparatory school for the Work-Study Movement in France. In September, Deng, his distant uncle Deng Shaosheng, and classmate Hu Mingde (also known as Hu Lun) embarked on the journey together. At the age of 15, Deng left Guang’an for Chongqing, where he and Deng Shaosheng both passed the entrance exam for the preparatory school. Deng was the youngest student in his class, which had a total of 110 students, divided into junior and senior classes, each lasting one year. Deng would later recall that this preparatory school was one of the best schools in Chongqing at the time and not easy to enter.
On July 19, 1920, the Preparatory School for the Work-Study Program in France held a graduation ceremony at the Chongqing General Chamber of Commerce, where 83 students were approved to go to France. Among them, 37 were self-funded, and Deng was one of them. In May 1994, Deng stated that by this time, his family was “gradually facing financial difficulties,” and “raising over 100 yuan for the trip to France was not easy.” On August 27, Deng and 83 students boarded the ship “Jiqing.” The ship set sail down the Yangtze River on August 28 and arrived in Shanghai on September 6, where they temporarily stayed at the “Mingli” hotel. On September 10, Deng and more than 80 students from Chongqing boarded the French mail ship “Antlepont,” which set sail on September 11. They arrived in Marseille, France, on October 19.
On February 16 and 17, 1964, Deng spoke with former Thai Prime Minister Pibulsonggram: “Actually, when we went to France, we only held the idea of ‘saving the country through industry.’ At the time, I was only sixteen and influenced by the May Fourth Movement, so I wanted to go abroad, learn some skills, and return to develop industry to save the country.” Deng was willing to go to France, believing he could make a living and reduce the burden on his family.
Work-Study Program
On October 19, 1920, Deng and his uncle Deng Shaosheng arrived in Marseille by ship. Deng and his classmates took a car to Paris. The Sino-French Education Association arranged for Deng, under the name Deng Xixian, to study at Bayeux Boys’ Middle School in the small town of Bayeux, Normandy. On the evening of October 21, Deng and 24 students arrived at Bayeux, more than 200 kilometers from Paris, and entered Bayeux Middle School. Deng’s student number was 1421. The school did not have an “affiliated advanced elementary school,” so the principal arranged for the 20-plus Chinese students to study in the business department in a separate class.
By March 1921, Deng had little money left, tuition became uncertain, and finding work was difficult. After World War I, unemployment soared in France, and the franc greatly depreciated. The situation severely affected the study and life of Chinese work-study students. The Sino-French Education Association said it was “extremely exhausted and could not continue, only able to provide moral support and offload all economic responsibilities.” On February 28, over 400 students, organized by Cai Hesen and others, petitioned the Chinese Embassy in France. The French government proposed to set up a “Chinese Youth Supervisory Office” jointly with the Chinese Embassy in France, temporarily providing unemployed and workless students with a daily living allowance of 6 francs. On March 13, Deng and 18 work-study students left Bayeux Middle School. They owed tuition, which was paid by the Sino-French Relief Committee. Deng’s work-study life in France ended.
Through the Sino-French Education Association, Deng went to Le Creusot in early April to work at the Schneider Steel Plant. Deng and his uncle worked various jobs, beginning a four-year labor career. At that time, Deng was only 16 and could only work as an apprentice, earning 10 francs a day, struggling to afford even basic meals. He was initially assigned to the rolling mill workshop, where his job was to manually push hot-rolled steel. Workers’ food usually consisted of bread and water, sometimes with a piece of chocolate, and miscellaneous expenses were substantial. After working more than 20 days, Deng incurred over 100 francs in debt. On April 23, Deng resigned from Schneider Steel Plant, citing exhaustion as the reason for leaving voluntarily. Later, Deng frequently told others that his short stature was due to the exhausting work and hunger he endured in France. While working at Schneider Steel, Deng experienced harsh labor and life conditions and met future early Chinese Communist Party leaders such as Zhao Shiyan and Li Lisan, who were also work-study students.
After resigning, Deng temporarily stayed at the Chinese Overseas Society in Paris. From April 26, he received a daily living allowance of 6 francs from the Chinese Embassy in France. However, the allowance was insufficient, and Deng began taking odd jobs, loading and unloading goods and luggage at train stations and docks, pushing bricks and carrying cement at construction sites, and even working as a cleaner. On October 22, Deng and 11 others were introduced by the Sino-French Relief Committee to work at a paper fan and paper flower factory in the 10th district of Paris. About two weeks later, after completing the work, Deng and 105 other Chinese students were dismissed. At the end of 1921, after months of fundraising efforts by the Work-Study Students’ Association in France, donations of more than 300,000 francs were sent to Paris from various communities in Chongqing and Chengdu. Each Sichuan student, including Deng, received 400 francs, barely surviving the winter of 1921.
On February 13, 1922, Deng moved from La Garenne-Colombes to Montargis, a small town in Chalette, and started working at the Hutchinson Rubber Factory the next day. He was assigned to the shoe-making workshop, working 10 hours a day. Once he became proficient, his wage shifted from hourly to piecework, producing more than 20 pairs of shoes a day and earning 15-16 francs a day. According to Zheng Chaolin, who also worked at Hutchinson, Deng could save over 200 francs a month after covering expenses. While in Paris, Deng reluctantly wrote home asking for money, and his parents sold some grain to send him. Deng received the money in the fall or winter of 1922. With financial support from his parents and savings from Hutchinson, Deng revived his desire to study. On October 17, Deng resigned from the Hutchinson Rubber Factory and went to Châtillon, Hauts-de-Seine, on October 23, hoping to enroll in Châtillon Middle School. Ultimately, due to a lack of funds, Deng’s dream of further education was shattered. On February 1, 1923, Deng returned to Chalette and re-entered Hutchinson’s shoe-making workshop. Just over a month later, on March 7, Deng left the factory, with his work card stating the reason for departure as “refusal to work.” Perhaps dissatisfied with Deng’s sudden departure, his work card was marked “never rehire.”
Engaging in Revolution
On June 3, 1922, the “Chinese Communist Youth League in Europe” (referred to as the “Youth League”) was founded. On August 1, the Youth League’s official publication Shaonian was launched. Zhao Shiyan frequently visited the Hutchinson Rubber Factory, and Wang Ruofei, who also worked there, often interacted with Deng. Deng began reading New Youth and Guide—publications on socialism.
On June 11, 1923, Deng left Chalette for Paris, where he worked in a factory and served as a propaganda officer for the European branch of the Chinese Communist Youth League. By the end of 1923, Deng left the factory to work for the League’s Executive Committee, mainly editing and publishing Shaonian, the League’s official publication. The magazine opposed warlord rule and imperialism, targeting Chinese students in France. In the fall, the Chinese Communist Party’s branch in Europe held its second congress, deciding to change the publication’s name from Shaonian to Chiguang. Chiguang was a semi-monthly magazine that influenced work-study students, Chinese workers, and the overseas Chinese community. It focused more on opposing imperialism and warlords, outlining the tasks of China’s revolution. Zhou Enlai was responsible for editing and writing, while Deng, using the pseudonym “Xixian,” contributed articles and handled tasks like stencil printing, earning him the nickname “Mimeograph Doctor.” Deng wrote many articles attacking the nationalist faction led by Zeng Qi and Li Huang. Deng and Zhou often worked late into the night, sometimes sleeping on the floor of the small editorial office. Deng respected Zhou and learned much from him, cementing a lifelong friendship. Deng became Zhou’s protégé, observing how Zhou built organizations. Deng sent seven or eight issues of Chiguang to his family, and during this period, he wrote home about breaking off his engagement. His parents had no choice but to persuade the Tang family, buying a dowry and marrying the Tang daughter off as the Deng family’s daughter. Through interactions with Chinese revolutionary strategists, Deng developed a unique perspective on how to implement theories and influence society from a “macro-strategic” standpoint.
In 1924, Zhou became acting head of the European branch of the Kuomintang (KMT), and Deng joined the KMT under his name in April. In July, the KMT’s domestic organization summoned Zhou to return to China. From July 13 to 15, the Chinese Communist Youth League in Europe held its fifth congress, electing a new Executive Committee. Deng, Zhou Weizhen, Yu Zengsheng, Li Junjie, and Xu Shuping were elected as members of the new Executive Committee. At the first meeting of the Executive Committee on July 16, Deng, Zhou Weizhen, and Yu Zengsheng formed the Secretariat to handle the daily affairs of the League, with Deng responsible for copying, mimeographing, and managing finances. According to the decision of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), all members of the Executive Committee of the Chinese Communist Youth League in Europe, including Deng, automatically became members of the CCP. In September and October, Deng contracted typhoid and was bedridden; he spent two months in the hospital and convalescent home. During this time, Deng wrote articles in Red Light criticizing the “Nationalist faction” and imperialism. In December, Deng participated in the sixth congress of the Chinese Communist Youth League in Europe, where he was elected to the Executive Committee’s (branch) Inspection Office and the Trade Union Movement Committee. After the meeting, he was appointed as one of six deputy directors of the Propaganda Department, managing workers’ movements.
In the spring of 1925, Deng was assigned by the party organization to be the special commissioner for the CCP’s Lyon branch, leading party and youth league work in the Lyon area as well as the Chinese labor movement. As the branch commissioner, Deng also served as the training officer for the Youth League’s Lyon branch. In April, he concurrently became the secretary of the CCP’s Lyon group, becoming the main leader of party and league organizations in Lyon, while also working in Lyon. After the May Thirtieth Movement, the CCP’s party and league organizations in Europe voiced support against imperialism. On June 21, several hundred Chinese expatriates in Europe demonstrated at the Chinese Legation in France. Subsequently, over 20 leaders of the CCP’s European branch, including Ren Zhuoxuan and Li Dazhang, were arrested. Deng returned to Paris to take over leadership of the party and league organizations. On June 30, Deng, Fu Zhong, and Mao Yushun formed the Provisional Executive Committee Secretariat of the European district of the Chinese Communist Youth League. On August 16, Deng was elected as an inspector for the Executive Committee of the Chinese Nationalist Party’s (KMT) general branch in France. During this time, Deng, Fu Zhong, and Deng Shaosheng also worked as writers for The Nationalist, a newspaper run by the KMT’s general branch in France, based in Paris. The next day, the first meeting of the Executive Committee of the seventh congress of the Chinese Communist Youth League in Europe decided that Deng, Fu Zhong, and Shi Qubing would form the Secretariat, with Fu Zhong as secretary. Deng’s frequent activities caught the attention of the French government. On August 20, French police discovered that Deng was residing in Boulogne-Billancourt and had been leading the activities of the Executive Committee of the European Chinese Communist Youth League. On September 15, Deng helped organize an anti-imperialist rally attended by more than 1,000 overseas Chinese in France. On November 6, to conceal his identity, Deng began working at the Renault factory as a fitter in the machine shop, with employee number 82409A. There, Deng learned some fitting techniques. During the Cultural Revolution, when Deng was sent to supervise labor at the tractor repair factory in Xinjian County, Jiangxi Province, he resumed his fitting work. On November 15, Deng presided over a meeting to commemorate Wang Jingqi, a leader of the KMT’s European branch who had been expelled from France and died on a ship while returning to China. The French government monitored the meeting.
On January 3, 1926, Deng spoke at a secret meeting of the China Action Committee in France, advocating support for Feng Yuxiang’s establishment of good relations with the Soviet Union to advance the anti-imperialist and anti-warlord struggle. The French police had detailed knowledge of Deng’s activities. On January 8, the Paris Police Chief issued orders to search Deng’s residence and expel Deng and two others from the country. At Deng’s residence, the police found a large amount of communist pamphlets in French and Chinese, Chinese newspapers, and printing equipment. Deng and his companions had already left France the night before, heading to Moscow. As early as May 1925, the CCP’s European branch had decided to send Deng to Moscow, where they were to receive training at the Communist University of the Toilers of the East in Moscow before returning to China to participate in the revolution. Deng’s five years and three months of life in France had come to an end. During his time in France, Deng developed a fondness for potatoes, cheese, croissants, wine, and coffee. He also grew to love watching football, once spending 5 francs (one day’s meal money) on the cheapest ticket to watch a match.
Professional Revolutionary
Deng and his companions stopped in Berlin, Germany, for a week, where they were warmly received by the CCP’s German branch and the German Communist Party. They also attended a mass meeting organized by the German Communists.
On January 17, 1926, Deng and his group arrived in Moscow, enrolling in the Communist University of the Toilers of the East (often abbreviated as “Moscow East University”), and later transferred to the Sun Yat-sen University of the Toilers of China (abbreviated as “Moscow Sun Yat-sen University”). Deng’s Russian name was Ivan Sergeyevich Dozorov (Иван Сергеевич Дозоров), and his student ID number was 233. One of the “theory groups” at the university gathered students from both the CCP and KMT, including CCP member Deng and KMT member Gu Zhenggang. Deng was once in the same study group as Chiang Ching-kuo, though they were in different classes. Deng was initially assigned to Class 9, later moving to Classes 1, 2, 11, and 7. The curriculum mainly included: political economy (focusing on Das Kapital), modern worldviews, theory and practice of the Russian Revolution, issues of nationality and colonies, the history of China’s revolutionary movement, world history (revolutionary movements), the history of social development, philosophy (dialectical materialism and historical materialism), economic geography, Leninism (focusing on Stalin’s Foundations of Leninism), military courses, and Russian language courses. Deng devoted himself to studying Marxist-Leninist theory. Because of his diligent study and bold, sharp debating style, Deng earned the nickname “Little Cannon” among his classmates. In March, Feng Yuxiang, arranged by Li Dazhao, visited the Soviet Union, arriving in Moscow in May. At Feng’s insistence, the CCP Central Committee and Moscow’s Sun Yat-sen and East Universities selected Deng and more than 20 others. On September 16, following instructions from the CCP Central Committee, Deng accompanied Feng back to China. By the end of 1926, Deng had returned to China to participate in revolutionary activities.
Five years in France and one year in the Soviet Union gave Deng a better understanding of global developments than Mao Zedong and deeper insights into China. He had the opportunity to observe the industry and commerce of a modern country and to see how the Soviet Union was handling modernization.
Emerging Talent
In the spring of 1927, Deng returned to China from the Soviet Union via Mongolia. After staying in Kulun for a month, Deng and his companions traveled to Xi’an, where Feng and the National Army’s United Military Headquarters were located. On January 12, Deng and 20 young communist political instructors were sent by the Comintern to Feng. In February, the Sun Yat-sen Military and Political Academy was established in Xi’an, with CCP member Shi Kexuan as the principal and Deng as the head of the Political Department. Liu Zhidan and others served as instructors. By the end of February, Deng and his group left Ningxia City, arriving in Xi’an at the end of March. In March, Deng was assigned to the newly established Xi’an Sun Yat-sen Military School as head of the Political Department and political instructor, while also serving as the secretary of the CCP organization at the school. The school was founded by the commander-in-chief of the United National Army stationed in Shaanxi, Yu Youren, but was effectively organized by several CCP members, including Liu Bojian. After returning to China, Deng was ordered to accompany Feng to Inner Mongolia, serving as political commissar of the Seventh Regiment under Feng. Additionally, Xi’an’s Sun Yat-sen Academy was hailed as the “Revolutionary School of the Northwest,” and Deng gave lectures at the academy on Saturdays. The Northwest Military Academy was later renamed the “National Army United Military Academy,” with Xu Fanting as principal, and Deng and Liu Bojian as instructors. In April, the first cooperation between the KMT and CCP broke down. At the end of June, Deng left Xi’an, traveling to Wuhan via Zhengzhou. At the beginning of July, Deng arrived in Wuhan, where he met Zhou Enlai and Nie Rongzhen. Through the introduction of the Central Military Commission, Deng was assigned to work in the CCP Central Committee as the Central Secretary. As the Central Secretary, Deng was primarily responsible for managing documents, communications, and confidential matters, as well as recording and drafting some secondary documents for important central meetings. In order to adapt to secret work, Deng changed his name from “Xixian” to “Xiaoping.” At that time, the CCP Central Committee had lost contact with most party organizations across the country, and the central agency had little work. On August 7, in order to review and correct the party’s mistakes in the later stages of the revolution and to formulate new policies and strategies, the CCP Central Committee held an emergency meeting in Hankou, known as the August 7th Meeting. Deng took minutes at the meeting. At the end of the year, after the CCP Central Committee secretly moved to Shanghai, Deng served as the Secretary General of the CCP Central Committee, primarily managing documents, confidential matters, communications, finances, and other tasks.
In January 1928, Zhou was appointed Director of the Central Committee’s Organization Bureau, handling daily affairs of the central organs; Deng assisted Zhou and other central leaders in managing daily affairs, attending various central meetings and taking notes. As the General Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China (CPC), Deng helped Li Weihan and Ren Bishi manage central daily work domestically. To ensure safety, central leaders constantly changed their residences without knowing each other’s locations, with Deng maintaining single-line contact. To adapt to clandestine work and begin effectively, the Central Committee proposed “absolute secrecy as a principle,” along with the massification of secret organs and “professionalization of key party cadres,” who would disguise themselves with certain professions. Deng once ran a grocery store as a meeting place for the central leadership and later opened an antique shop as a liaison point between the Central Committee and representatives of the Comintern. On May 18, Deng and others who stayed in the central organization drafted Circular No. 47, which set out rules for restructuring, development, and clandestine work within party organizations, and proposed several concrete measures. On May 31, the Central Committee’s Organization Department issued the “Common Knowledge of Clandestine Work,” a guideline for secret work for party organizations and members at all levels. At the end of June, Deng was elected Deputy Secretary of the Secretariat of the Central Committee, assisting the new Secretary of the Central Committee, Xiang Zhongfa. Deng, being low-profile and quickly learning Shanghainese, became an ideal contact person for underground activities. On August 29, Deng attended a special meeting of the Standing Committee of the Politburo, where Li Lisan presented a report on the 6th National Congress of the CPC, the establishment of new central organizational structures, and the division of labor within the Politburo. In September, in Shanghai, Deng and Zhang Xiyi introduced Zhang Xiaomei to the CPC, and she was assigned to work at the central organ, organizing materials for the Central Labor Department and serving as a confidential courier for the Central Translation Department. On November 13, Xiang Zhongfa chaired the third meeting of the Politburo after the 6th National Congress, discussing the work distribution of central departments and central work plans, with special attention given to the selection of a General Secretary for the Central Committee. Zhou proposed that the General Secretary should primarily handle technical and administrative matters, and it did not necessarily need to be a Central Committee member. The meeting decided to rename the position to “Secretary for Central Affairs.” The next day, at the 14th Standing Committee meeting of the Politburo, Deng Xiaoping was appointed Secretary for Central Affairs. Deng arranged meeting agendas, listed discussion topics, and oversaw the implementation of decisions after meetings.
Deng and Zhang Xiyuan became neighbors with Zhou and Deng Yingchao, all engaged in underground work together.
In 1929, during a discussion on Li Lisan’s advocacy of seizing key cities, Deng remarked that the Kuomintang had millions of troops, and since the revolution was at a low point, they had just organized and did not have enough arms. “How can we win with mere rifles and cannons?” On July 30, the Politburo decided to send Deng to Sichuan for an inspection, lasting three months. On August 13, the Politburo decided to transfer Zhao Rong to replace Deng, but the plan was later canceled. On August 20, the Politburo established a Sichuan Issues Committee, with Deng and others appointed as members. However, Yang Yin and Peng Pai were arrested on August 24, and on August 27, the CPC Central Committee decided that Xiaoye would replace Deng as Secretary for Central Affairs. After organizing the Longzhou Uprising, Deng went to Shanghai to report to the Central Committee. During Deng’s absence, Chen Haoren, Zhang Yunyi, Li Mingrui, and Yu Zuoyu launched the Baise Uprising on December 11, 1929, and the Longzhou Uprising on February 1, 1930, establishing base areas in Zuojiang and Youjiang and forming the 7th and 8th Armies of the Chinese Workers’ and Peasants’ Red Army. In Baise, Deng personally organized trade unions, setting up 19 unions in various industries and establishing the Baise General Trade Union in early December, along with the Baise Workers’ Red Guards. On December 11, the “7th Army of the Chinese Workers’ and Peasants’ Red Army” assembled in Baise County Square and announced its formation. At the same time, a Soviet government was established in Zuojiang, with Zhang Yunyi and Deng serving as commander and political commissar of the 7th Army, respectively. In early December, Deng departed from Longzhou and reached Hong Kong by mid-December, where he attended the “Discussion on Red Army Operations in Guangxi” organized by the Central Military Commission, delivering a “supplementary report.”
First Downfall
In August 1931, Deng became the Secretary of the Jiangxi Ruijin County CPC Committee, also overseeing the party’s work in Xunwu and Anyuan counties. From early September to early October, Deng represented the Eastern Jiangxi Special Committee at the third Congress of Workers, Peasants, and Soldiers of Ruijin County, announcing the removal and arrest of Li Tianfu as county party secretary and head of the County Anti-Reactionary Committee. Upon his arrival, Deng’s exceptional mediation and arbitration skills quickly pacified the political persecution-based anti-reactionary movement. Soon after, Ruijin became the capital of the Chinese Soviet Republic, and Deng left his position as party secretary to become Secretary-General of the General Political Department of the Military Commission.
In June 1932, the Central Committee and Jiangxi Provincial Committee decided to establish the Huichang Central County Committee of the CPC, also known as the Huixun’an Central County Committee, with Deng as secretary. Deng actively implemented Mao Zedong’s “rich peasant policy,” organizing local armed forces and becoming one of Mao’s supporters within the party. Deng greatly admired Mao Zedong. Later that winter, Deng was appointed secretary of the Huichang Central County Committee, leading work in Huichang, Xunwu, and Anyuan counties. Six months later, he was transferred to serve as Propaganda Minister of the Jiangxi Provincial Committee.
In 1933, due to the anti-Ro Ming line campaign and the Xunwu Incident, Deng was ousted for the first time. At the time, Li Fuchun, the secretary of the Jiangxi Provincial Committee, called Deng back after several months and appointed him as a propaganda officer for the provincial committee. In mid-March, Li Fuchun assigned Deng to the provincial committee as Propaganda Minister. On April 15, the CPC Central Bureau of the Soviet Zone published an article in the Struggle newspaper titled “The Ro Ming Line in Jiangxi,” criticizing Deng, Mao Zetan, Xie Weijun, and Gu Bai. They supported Mao Zedong’s correct proposals, opposing and resisting Wang Ming’s “leftist” dogmatism, rejecting the “urban centrality theory” by advocating for the development of vast rural areas where the enemy’s forces were weak, and opposing military adventurism while promoting the strategy of luring the enemy deep into their territory. Deng faced fierce attacks and criticism from Wang Ming’s faction within the party. Although subjected to immense pressure, Deng, despite being forced to self-criticize, never abandoned his principles. Radicals like Li Weihan targeted Ro Ming and Deng’s political line, which was essentially a critique of Mao Zedong’s strategic approach, an event historically known as the “Deng, Mao, Xie, Gu Incident.” Subsequently, Deng was gradually stripped of power, removed from his position as Provincial Party Secretary, and demoted. Deng was eventually dismissed from his role as Propaganda Minister of the Jiangxi Provincial Committee and transferred to the General Political Department of the Red Army, where he edited the Red Star newspaper under duress and made a self-criticism. Deng was even imprisoned. Labeled as a “Maoist leader,” Deng was severely criticized, and his second wife, Jin Weiying, joined in the criticism. Jin Weiying later filed for divorce and remarried Li Weihan. After the end of the internal party struggle, Deng was severely reprimanded and stripped of his position as Provincial Propaganda Minister. He was demoted to serve as an inspector for the Nancun District Committee in Lian County. However, just half a month later, Deng was transferred back to the General Political Department of the Red Army. After returning to Ningdu, Deng was sent to supervise labor in Qilichun Village. During the Fifth Encirclement Campaign, the General Political Department was short-staffed, and its acting head, He Chang, an old friend of Deng, recommended him to Wang Jiaxiang for the position of Secretary-General of the General Political Department. Deng returned to Ruijin in June, marking his first “fall” and “rise” in his “three ups and downs.”
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During the Fifth Encirclement Campaign, the Kuomintang drove the Communist Party of China out of their base areas. On the eve of the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party and the headquarters of the Red Army evacuating Ruijin, Li Fuchun, the deputy director acting as director of the General Political Department of the Red Army, decided that Deng would accompany the military on the transfer. On October 21, 1934, the Central Red Army began the Long March, and Deng participated. In the early stages of the Long March, Deng was responsible for editing and publishing the Red Star Newspaper. After the Liping Conference on December 18, Deng was transferred to serve as Secretary-General of the Central Column, also known as Secretary-General of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China. Deng Yingchao, who had been suffering from tuberculosis, requested to step down from her role as Secretary-General of the Central Committee.
In January 1935, on the recommendation of Mao Zedong and Zhou Enlai, Deng, as Secretary-General, attended the Zunyi Conference and took on the task of recording the minutes of the meeting. Deng, as the clerk, was allowed to attend the meeting. On May 12, Deng attended the enlarged meeting of the Political Bureau of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China, held in the suburbs of Huili County, Sichuan. After the Lianghekou Meeting on June 26, the Central Committee decided to appoint Deng as the Head of the Propaganda Department of the Political Department of the First Red Army, with Liu Ying succeeding Deng as Secretary-General of the Central Committee. After the Zhang Guotao split within the Party, Peng Dehuai and Deng took on major command responsibilities for the Right Route Army of the Red Army. On September 12, the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China held an enlarged meeting of the Political Bureau and decided to reorganize the Central Committee Column and the main force of the First Red Army into the Shaanxi-Gansu Detachment of the Chinese Workers’ and Peasants’ Red Army. The First Red Army, where Deng served (which was renamed the First Army on July 21, according to the decision of the Central Revolutionary Military Commission), was reorganized as the First Column. On October 19, Deng arrived in Wuqizhen, northern Shaanxi, with the Shaanxi-Gansu Detachment. On October 29, when the Long March forces arrived in northern Shaanxi, Deng contracted severe malaria. Thanks to medicines and supplies provided by Zhang Xueliang, Deng narrowly escaped a life-threatening condition. The Long March dealt a heavy blow to the Chinese Communist Party; when the army set out from Jiangxi, it had about 86,000 troops, but many died along the way, and others deserted. By the time they reached the Shaanxi-Gansu-Ningxia border region in October 1935, fewer than 10,000 remained. According to Deng’s daughter, as the troops continued to dwindle, Deng was responsible for propaganda along the way, ensuring discipline, and had many opportunities to converse with Mao Zedong. After the Battle of Zhiluo Town began, Deng, along with the leadership of the Political Department of the First Red Army (formed from the Shaanxi-Gansu Detachment), went to the front to assess the battle situation.
Deng made promoting the policy of a united front against Japanese aggression the most important task of the Propaganda Department of the Political Department of the First Red Army. On February 5, 1936, Deng accompanied the First Red Army on the Eastern Expedition. In May, the Central Committee decided that the Eastern Expedition Red Army would withdraw to northern Shaanxi, west of the Yellow River. On May 18, the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China held an enlarged meeting of the Political Bureau at Taixiang Temple in Yan’an. After the meeting, Luo Ronghuan was transferred to the Red Army University as an instructor, and Deng succeeded Luo as the Deputy Director of the Political Department of the First Red Army. On May 19, Deng departed with the First Red Army from the Yanchuan area to participate in the Western Expedition. Deng personally compiled many important materials for the First Red Army and wrote editorials for the Warriors Newspaper. From July 9 to July 19, Deng was entrusted by the Central Revolutionary Military Commission to inspect political work in the 81st and 75th Divisions of the 15th Red Army Corps. That winter, Deng contracted typhoid fever, fell into a coma, and was in critical condition. Fortunately, a batch of canned condensed milk was included in the comfort supplies provided to the First Red Army by Zhang Xueliang’s troops, and Deng recovered by eating condensed milk. On December 14, the Central Revolutionary Military Commission decided to appoint Zhu Rui as Director of the Political Department of the Second Red Army, and Deng succeeded Zhu Rui as Director of the Political Department of the First Red Army.
War of Resistance Against Japan
On June 14, 1937, the Central Revolutionary Military Commission decided that Deng would replace Yang Shangkun as Deputy Director of the General Political Department of the Chinese Workers’ and Peasants’ Red Army and Deputy Director of the Political Department of the Red Army’s Frontline Headquarters. On July 7, the Marco Polo Bridge Incident occurred, marking the beginning of the nationwide War of Resistance Against Japan. On July 28, the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China decided that the Red Army would complete its reorganization by August 15 and launch an anti-Japanese offensive on August 20. After the reorganization, the Red Army established a General Command, with Zhu De as Chief Commander, Peng Dehuai as Deputy Commander, Ren Bishi as Director of the Political Department, and Deng as Deputy Director. On August 9, Zhou Enlai, Zhu De, Ye Jianying, and Deng went to Nanjing to attend the National Defense Conference convened by Chiang Kai-shek, while also negotiating between the Kuomintang and the Communist Party. According to the second agreement of cooperation between the Kuomintang and the Communist Party, on August 22, the Chinese Workers’ and Peasants’ Red Army was reorganized into the Eighth Route Army of the National Revolutionary Army, and Deng was appointed Deputy Director of the Political Department of the Eighth Route Army. Along with Zhou Enlai and others, he worked in Taiyuan to promote the united front. On August 25, the enlarged meeting of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China at Luochuan concluded, and the Central Revolutionary Military Commission decided to reorganize the General Political Department of the Red Army into the Political Department of the Eighth Route Army, with Ren Bishi as Director and Deng as Deputy Director. On September 20, the Committee for the General Mobilization of National Revolutionary Warfare in the Second War Zone (referred to as the Mobilization Committee or War Mobilization Committee) was established in Taiyuan. The committee was established after discussions between Zhou Enlai, Peng Dehuai, and Yan Xishan. Kuomintang patriotic general Xu Fanting was appointed as Chairman of the Committee, with Communist Party representative Cheng Zihua serving as Minister of the People’s Armed Department, Nan Hanchen as Minister of the Organization Department, and Wu Xinyu as Deputy Minister of the Mobilization and Allocation Department. Deng and Peng Xuefeng were representatives of the Eighth Route Army but did not reside in the leadership of the General Mobilization Committee. On December 13, the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China decided at its Political Bureau meeting that Deng would succeed Zhang Hao as Director of the Political Training Department of the 129th Division, as Zhang Hao was suffering from a serious brain illness and had to return to Yan’an for recuperation.
On January 5, 1938, the Central Military Commission of the Communist Party of China officially appointed Deng as the Director of the Political Training Department of the 129th Division. Deng joined Division Commander Liu Bocheng in the anti-Japanese war. In early January, Deng wrote an article titled “Mobilizing New Recruits and Political Work for New Soldiers.” Deng served as the first secretary, and Liu Bocheng was the second secretary, giving Deng more power, including the authority to assess the political readiness of the troops and the surrounding environment before battles. On January 18, Deng arrived at the 129th Division to take up his duties. In fact, during the eight-year war of resistance against Japan, Deng was the highest political leader in the Taihang Mountains area of Shanxi Province. From February 2 to February 3, Deng presided over the fifth meeting of the Military-Political Committee of the 129th Division, during which it was decided that the main forces of the division would advance eastward to the Ping-Han Railway, first attacking the enemy at Xiyang and then advancing eastward to establish new guerrilla zones on both sides of the Ping-Han Railway. Deng aimed to establish a self-sufficient economy, providing enough food for the tens of thousands of local residents and the troops. He also sought to produce sufficient cash crops and enable local industries to manufacture enough cloth and other daily necessities. Deng was also responsible for recruiting soldiers for the regular army and assessing the political significance of military actions. Deng and Liu Bocheng led their troops to establish an anti-Japanese base in the plains of southern Hebei Province. From January to September, the two developed the highly effective “sparrow warfare” tactics. After May, Deng frequently left the Taihang Mountains to command the main forces of the 129th Division, alongside Liu Bocheng and Xu Xiangqian, advancing eastward to southern Hebei and conducting guerrilla warfare in the plains. The American Navy Major, U.S. military observer Evans F. Carlson, who visited at the time, commented on Deng: “He is a small, sturdy, and talkative man, and his understanding of things is as keen as mustard.” From September 29 to November 6, Deng attended the extended Sixth Plenary Session of the Sixth Central Committee of the Communist Party of China held in Yan’an, where he reported on regional work. On November 9, the Political Bureau of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China issued a notification regarding the members of the Northern Bureau and sub-bureaus, deciding that Zhu De, Peng Dehuai, Yang Shangkun, Nie Rongzhen, Guan Xiangying, Deng, Peng Zhen, Cheng Zihua, and Guo Hongtao would be members of the Northern Bureau, with Yang Shangkun also serving as the secretary of the Northern Bureau. On November 23, Deng arrived in Xi’an from Yan’an, preparing to return to the Taihang frontlines. On December 7, the Central Secretariat of the Communist Party of China decided that the Party Affairs Committee in the national military would be composed of 26 people, including Wang Jiaxiang, Zhu De, Peng Dehuai, Tan Zheng, Xiang Ying, Chen Yi, Nie Rongzhen, Deng, Guan Xiangying, Cheng Zihua, Lin Biao, Liu Bocheng, He Long, and Xiao Jinguang.
For the next 13 years, Deng and Liu Bocheng continued to fight side by side, with the 129th Division and the Jin-Ji-Lu-Yu Field Army (later known as the Second Field Army, the Central Plains Field Army) eventually becoming known in history as the “Liu-Deng Army.” Liu Bocheng had a reputation for treating his subordinates well, while Deng was much stricter with them, disregarding everything when it came to battles. Liu was also more cautious than Deng when it came to executing soldiers suspected of being spies for the Kuomintang. Compared to Mao Zedong, who stayed in Yan’an, far from the enemy, with time to study party theory and broad strategy, and leisure to enjoy history, philosophy, and poetry, Deng, as a political commissar, lived in the Taihang Mountains, closer to the Japanese frontlines, with little time to study theory. Deng had to take on practical responsibilities and deal with various issues related to local residents. From 1937 to 1945, Liu and Deng established the Jin-Ji-Lu-Yu base, with Deng serving as the first secretary of the base’s Party Committee. He advocated for promoting the Communist Party’s ideology and implemented policies such as “rent and interest reduction” for landlords and “rent and interest payment” for farmers, to unite all possible anti-Japanese forces.
On April 29, 1939, Deng arrived in Yan’an. In July, he attended the expanded meeting of the Political Bureau of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China. In August, he married Zhuo Lin in Yan’an. Zhuo Lin had studied in the Physics Department at Peking University and had remarked that Deng was an outstanding figure among most Communist Party cadres.
On July 22, 1940, Zhu De, Peng Dehuai, and Zuo Quan sent a joint telegram to Nie Rongzhen, He Long, Guan Xiangying, Liu Bocheng, Deng, and others, issuing the “Battle Preparations Order.” On August 20, under the deployment of Liu Bocheng and Deng, the road destruction operation began on the western section of the Zheng-Tai Railway. On August 22, Liu Bocheng and Deng received the first combat report signed by Peng Dehuai and Zuo Quan, which used the term “Hundred Regiments Offensive” for the first time. Although Deng did not participate in the campaign directly, he tacitly allowed his troops to join. From August to February, Deng and Liu Bocheng led the 129th Division to participate in the “Hundred Regiments Offensive” initiated by the Eighth Route Army Headquarters. When news of the victory reached Yan’an, Mao Zedong immediately telegraphed Peng Dehuai: “The Hundred Regiments Offensive is truly exciting. Could similar battles be organized once or twice more?” Chiang Kai-shek also telegraphed to commend Zhu De and Peng Dehuai. However, during the Cultural Revolution, the Red Guards used this campaign to accuse Deng of opposing Mao Zedong’s guerrilla warfare strategy.
By the end of 1942, Deng returned to Yan’an and supported Mao Zedong’s Rectification Movement, implementing the “Three-Three System” in anti-Japanese base areas. In 1942, Deng became the secretary of the Northern Bureau of the Communist Party of China.
From January 25 to February 21, 1943, the Taihang Sub-bureau held a high-level cadre meeting in a church in Wencun, She County, historically known as the “Wencun Meeting,” chaired by Deng. On August 1, the Central Political Bureau of the Chinese Communist Party sent a telegram to the Northern Bureau and the Taihang Sub-bureau, among others, deciding that during Peng Dehuai’s participation in the Seventh National Congress in Yan’an, Deng would serve as the acting secretary of the Northern Bureau. On October 6, the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party decided to merge the Taihang Sub-bureau and the Northern Bureau, abolish the Taihang Sub-bureau, and have the Northern Bureau directly lead the work of the four regional party committees in Taihang, Taiyue, Southern Hebei, and the Hebei-Shandong-Henan areas. On the same day, according to the decision of the Central Military Commission, the 129th Division merged with the headquarters of the Eighth Route Army, retaining the 129th Division’s designation, and a new Taihang Military District was established. The logistics work of the headquarters of the Eighth Route Army, the 129th Division, and the Taihang Military District were consolidated, and the headquarters of the Eighth Route Army directly led the four military districts of Taihang, Taiyue, Southern Hebei, and Hebei-Shandong-Henan.
In June 1945, Deng was elected as a member of the Central Committee at the Seventh National Congress of the Communist Party of China. On August 20, the Central Committee decided to abolish the Northern Bureau and establish the Central Bureau of Shanxi-Hebei-Shandong-Henan, with Deng as secretary and Bo Yibo as deputy secretary. At the same time, the Shanxi-Hebei-Shandong-Henan Military District was established, with Liu Bocheng as commander and Deng as political commissar. On August 20, the 129th Division’s Taihang, Taiyue, and Hebei-Shandong-Henan military districts were merged into the Shanxi-Hebei-Shandong-Henan Military District, with Liu Bocheng as commander and Deng as political commissar, while Teng Daiyuan and Wang Hongkun served as deputy commanders, and Bo Yibo and Zhang Jichun as deputy political commissars.
The Second Chinese Civil War
On August 15, 1945, Japan announced its unconditional surrender, and on September 2, Japan officially signed the surrender. In the winter of 1945, the Shanxi-Hebei-Shandong-Henan Field Army (later renamed the Central Plains Field Army and the Second Field Army) was established, with Liu Bocheng as commander and Deng as political commissar. In September, the Liu-Deng Army successfully employed the tactic of “besieging three sides, leaving one open” to annihilate 35,000 troops of Yan Xishan’s forces in the Shangdang Campaign, and later achieved victory in the Ping-Han Campaign, coordinating with Mao Zedong’s negotiations in Chongqing.
In August 1946, the Liu-Deng Army cooperated with Chen Yi’s East China Field Army, and Deng was appointed as the first secretary of the Central Plains Bureau. On May 15, 1947, the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China established the Central Plains Bureau, with Deng as secretary and Zheng Weisan, Li Xiannian, and Li Xuefeng as deputy secretaries. Liu and Deng were ordered to lead their troops into the Dabie Mountains on the edge of the Central China Plain. Mao Zedong’s direct goal was to drive the Nationalist forces out of the northwest, while also hoping to establish a base near the Central China Plain. On June 30, Liu and Deng led their troops across the Yellow River and entered the Dabie Mountains. During this period, Deng’s relationship with Liu Bocheng deteriorated significantly, and they clashed over land reform in the Dabie Mountains. Many soldiers of the Liu-Deng Army died or suffered from hunger and cold, while the survivors faced harsh conditions, vulnerable to enemy attacks or losses due to lack of supplies.
In March 1948, Deng and Liu Bocheng led the main forces out of the Dabie Mountains and joined forces with Chen Yi and Su Yu’s Field Army and Chen Geng and Xie Fuzhi’s group in Central China. On May 9, the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China and the Central Military Commission issued a decision to merge the North China and Central Plains liberated areas, combining the two central bureaus into the North China Central Bureau, and merging the two military districts into the North China Military District. The two regional governments were merged into the North China Joint Administrative Committee, with Liu Shaoqi serving as first secretary of the North China Bureau, Bo Yibo as second secretary, and Nie Rongzhen as third secretary. Nie Rongzhen served as commander of the North China Military District, Bo Yibo as political commissar, and Dong Biwu as chairman of the North China Joint Administrative Committee. Deng served as the first secretary of the Central Plains Bureau, Chen Yi as second secretary, Deng Zihui as third secretary, Liu Bocheng as commander of the Central Plains Military District and Central Plains Field Army, and Deng as political commissar. From September 8 to 13, the Central Committee held a Politburo meeting in Xibaipo, also known as the “September Meeting,” with Deng attending as a member of the Central Committee and first secretary of the Central Plains Bureau. On the night of October 22, the Central Plains Field Army captured Zhengzhou. Deng and Chen Yi arrived in Zhengzhou that night, staying at the former Nationalist Zhengzhou Pacification Office on Datong Road, and immediately commanded the troops to advance eastward to Kaifeng. The Nationalist forces abandoned the city, and the next day Kaifeng was taken.
Due to the expansion of the Huaihai Campaign, unified command was strengthened. The Central Military Commission accepted Su Yu’s suggestion and on November 1 telegraphed Chen Yi, Deng, Su Yu, and informed the East China Bureau and the Central Plains Bureau: “The entire campaign is under the unified command of Chen and Deng.” In the Huaihai Campaign, in addition to the forces invested by the CCP, over one million peasants were mobilized to transport food and military supplies for the troops, and more than 700,000 livestock were requisitioned as transportation tools. In the final stage of the Huaihai Campaign, Mao Zedong ordered the establishment of a general front committee, bringing 500,000 troops under the unified leadership of Deng as general secretary. During the Huaihai and Yangtze River Crossing campaigns, which were of great significance to the second Chinese Civil War, Deng served as the secretary of the general front committee, responsible for strategic command of the frontline troops, and implemented targeted land and political reforms in different liberated areas. Liu Bocheng, concerned about the safety of the troops, sought to dig more trenches to resist the superior firepower of the Nationalist forces, but Deng insisted on an offensive approach. Later, some criticized Deng for placing the troops in danger during the early stages of the campaign, leading to unnecessary casualties and failing to construct more defensive fortifications.
On March 14, 1949, the Central Committee decided that Deng would serve as the first secretary of the East China Bureau, with Rao Shushi as second secretary and secretary of the Shanghai Municipal Committee, Chen Yi as third secretary and mayor of Shanghai, and Liu Bocheng as mayor and secretary of the Nanjing Municipal Committee. On April 21, the People’s Liberation Army easily crossed the wide Yangtze River, defeating resistance and capturing Nanjing. On July 16, the Central Committee decided to form the Southwest Bureau of the Chinese Communist Party, with Deng, Liu Bocheng, and He Long among the members. Deng was appointed first secretary, Liu Bocheng second secretary, and He Long third secretary. The Southwest Bureau was formally established on November 23. From September 21 to 30, the First Plenary Session of the Chinese People’s Political Consultative Conference was grandly held at Huairentang in Zhongnanhai, and Deng was elected as a member of the Central People’s Government.
Source: Wikipedia
(To be continued, please check the next article.)
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